WIK AND NATIVE TITLE

On 5 February 1997, the Hon. Paul Seaman, QC presented a detailed but succinct talk to the Kimberley Society explaining the High Court’s recent Wik decision on native title claims over certain pastoral leases in Queensland. Members were able to access a copy of his notes but no summary of the talk was published.

KIMBERLEY ROCK ART

Grahame Walsh, the speaker at the March 1997 meeting, was born and raised on a station in Queensland and has pursued rock art since 1957. He had 12 years with Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service, creating and running the Historic Sites Section. He was employed as Cultural Consultant to the Rockhampton Aboriginal Organisation Dreamtime Cultural Corporation for four years and since has operated as a private rock art consultant. Grahame established the Takarakka Rock Art Research Centre in Carnarvon Gorge (Qld) and, with its repository now exceeding 1.2 million catalogued images of rock art sites and associated culture, the Centre is believed to be the largest in the world.

This trip to WA is only Grahame's third but he has been involved in Kimberley rock art research since 1977. He showed a representative 80 slides of excellent quality, and he spoke primarily about the "stick" figures that he and others call Bradshaw paintings. Bradshaw, according to Grahame, was a surveyor, and it was his reports of the ancient art that brought it to the notice of western eyes. Some people prefer to call the art by the Aboriginal names of Djennaggi or Goyon/Koian/Gueon-Gueon paintings but Grahame rejects these names. In his view, there are three epochs of art, which he identifies as the "Archaic", the "Erudite" and the "Aborigine". And, within each one, to assist with his cataloguing of the art, he has assigned names to the various types of work that occur. Grahame describes the "Archaic" epoch as the "animal infill period", saying that the oldest sites are believed to be in Arnhemland and that the hand stencils of this epoch should not strictly be considered as art. His "Erudite" epoch includes the so-called Bradshaws and "clothes peg" figures while his "Aborigine" epoch includes the "clawed hand" period, grass prints, string prints and the famous Wandjina art.

As Grahame showed his slides, he spoke enthusiastically about the attributes by which he differentiates one piece of rock art from another. He pointed out how, in the "Archaic" epoch, the inside of the drawings is filled with colour and some look like fork-tailed cat fish. There were also "feather" prints, named for the feathers with which they were made. This art is found very high up on sheer walls and now, even though the topography may have altered, one has to wonder how the artists could have worked at these heights. With regard to some "positive" hand prints, Grahame pointed out that these show enormous hands with rounded fingers that are nothing like the long, slender fingers of today's Aboriginal people. When he moved on to his "Erudite" epoch, talking about "clothes peg" figures, "tassel Bradshaws", and figures with "sashes", "cords", "Afro" headdresses, "fluffy arm bands" and "bangles", he became particularly animated. Grahame uses these "sashes" and the like to argue the existence of sequential styles in the art form and, whilst he would not reveal any of the latest findings, he told how experts have recently dated some fossilised wasp nest found at the site, thereby offering scientific evidence of the age of the paintings. Grahame says these elegant figures occur only in the Kimberley and that, while they extend as far as the Caroline Ranges, they are found mainly in the Drysdale River area. It is probable the distribution was more widespread in the past, however, as weathering of the rock surfaces causes deterioration and many of the paintings may have disappeared.

The slides, and Grahame's commentary on them, offered great insight into the diversity of rock art in the Kimberley. The strong interest from the audience resulted in many questions and it was clear that members and guests were intrigued with the evening's subject matter.

Daphne Choules Edinger

WOLFE CREEK METEORITE CRATER

On 3 April 1997, the President Kevin Kenneally welcomed the 55 members present and spoke about the success of the Rock Art Seminar. He advised that the proceedings should be available within a few months and then presented the immediate past President Cathie Clement with a bouquet of flowers in recognition of her dedicated work for the Society.

Kevin then introduced Dr Alex Bevan who is now with the WA Museum and was previously with the Natural History Museum in London. Alex first showed a slide of the moon's surface and pointed out the many deep craters which mean there was an intense bombardment by debris of the solar system 3,800 million years ago. The many facts that followed revealed that Earth is the most geologically active planet in our solar system – mountains have been built and worn down, volcanoes erupt and subside and, with the surface constantly changing, very old meteorite impact craters have been erased. The Kimberley rocks are 140 million to three billion years in age, whereas the oldest Australian rocks—in the Pilbara in WA—are 3,800 million years old.

Meteorites preserve a unique record of the making of the solar system. There are about 140 structures of confirmed or probable meteorite impact origin in the world. Five of these are in the Kimberley and there are 23 in the whole of Australia. Meteors are "falling stars" which are destroyed by the heat of friction as they pass through the troposphere. Meteorites of 100s to 1000s of tons and more cause crater-forming events, and Earth is a large ancient target for these. Our largest crater is 35-90 km diameter in South Australia.

Of all the craters in Australia, Wolfe Creek Meteorite Crater is visually the most spectacular and also one of the best studied. Situated 100 km south of Halls Creek and a little to the east of Wolfe Creek itself, it was discovered from the air in 1947. It is almost perfectly circular, its diameter varying between 870 and 950 m and its rim rising 35 m above the surrounding sandplain. The crater floor lies as much as 25 m below the level of the plain. Originally, it would have been much deeper, maybe even 150 m, but is now largely filled by sand. During a crater-forming event, the meteorite travels fast, 511.2 km/sec even, penetrating the ground at a speed of 5 km/sec. There is colossal energy which is converted into heat; the bulk melts; and some vaporises. The rim is bent back, rocks beneath are pulverised into breccia and meteoritic material. Because the bulk of the projectile is destroyed, a simple bowl-shaped structure is formed with rocks melted at the sides. Recent sediments are deposited in the base of the crater, which is estimated to be 300,000 years old and has been deeply weathered in the meantime and the rim worn down. Remnants of the meteorite are now converted into iron oxide by time and erosion. There are also melt glasses (melted sandstone) which superficially resemble tektites—splashes of molten rock that fall back to Earth from an impact.

In addition to Wolfe Creek Crater, in order of increasing age, the other craters and structures in the Kimberley are:

1 . Snelling Crater, estimated to be 5,000 years old and 29 m in diameter, situated south of Wolfe Creek Meteorite Crater. It should contain meteorites but none have been recognised.
2. Goat Paddock, north of Mueller Range, 5 km in diameter, formed 55 million years ago and much eroded. Melted and fractured rocks and shatter cones testify to its meteoritic origin.
3. Piccaninny Structure in Purnululu (Bungle Bungle Range) is 7 km in diameter, an area of intensely deformed rocks around 360 million years old showing much folding and faulting and breccias. It is cut by the gorge and is the least convincing of the structures.
4. Spider Structure is 11 km across and 13 km long, so deeply eroded it is hard to see. The sandstone ridges are delineated by faults and prolonged erosion giving it a spider-like appearance from the air. First seen by J. Harms 35 years ago, it is the Kimberley's oldest structure at 700 million years and has superb shatter cones.

What are these impacting objects? They come from a belt of asteroids in earth-crossing orbit and, from a study of ancient impacts, the frequency with which they will occur can be predicted. The crater-formers are battleship size and bigger.

Dr Bevan illustrated this talk with many interesting slides. At the conclusion, he answered questions from the audience and was thanked in the customary manner. The President made some announcements and asked members to bring in items of interest which could form a 'focus' after the talks. Supper was then served.

Suggested reading: Alex Bevan and Ken McNamara, Australian Meteorite Craters, Western Australian Museum Publication, 1993, 27 pp; and Australian Impact Structures, AGSO Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, Volume 16, No. 4, 1996, 625 pp.

Daphne Choules Edinger

THE BOUNTIFUL KIMBERLEY: OFFSHORE CRUSTACEA

At the May 1997 meeting, the President, Kevin Kenneally, apologised for the advertised speaker (Gerry Allen) having been delayed in his return from Indonesia and thanked Di Jones for stepping into the breach at short notice. Di is a coordinator of the new development at the WA Museum and is also Curator of Crustaceae. She is a graduate of the University of Birmingham and presented a talk focussed on the crustacea of the offshore islands and reefs.

Di illustrated her talk with excellent slides of the sorts of areas visited; islands, coral reefs, limestone reefs, fringing reefs, sandy cays and even mangroves and lots of mud. There are no names for many of the reefs and islands, and the scientists themselves have named 9 or 10 of them. The Kimberley region is difficult of access and remote and therefore it is expensive to mount field trips using boats. A good skipper, who knows the vagaries of the tides and the rugged coastline is essential. Di never ceases to be amazed at the great numbers and diversity of species she encounters on her field trips. There are new records and new species discovered each time and, on one trip, a diversion was created with the sighting of Humpback whales travelling north to warmer waters to calve.

Di does most of her collecting in the intertidal zone and explained the processes involved in the measuring, identifying, photographing, describing and preserving of each specimen retained. First she described and illustrated the Crustacea found on coral reefs. The mantis shrimps are so named because of the resemblance of the claws to that of the preying mantis. The claws are adapted for seizing and holding prey. Many are highly coloured (e.g. deep red) and may be up to 30 cm long. Alpheid shrimps occur on sea-shores, swamps and mud-flats, and especially in tropical reef waters. These shrimps have one enlarged nipper which is capable of producing a loud and sharp crack, rather like a pistol shot. Hence they are sometimes called ‘Pistol’ shrimps. There are many small Palaemonid prawns associated with marine hosts such as sea cucumbers, sea anemones, or corals, or in the middle of a crinoid or sea-lily, and being sympathetic colours. Gnathophyllum is a palaemonid shrimp associated with coral. It is striped and oddly shaped to merge into its background. The elegant banded Coral Shrimp, Stenopus hispidus, has long thin striped legs and long fine antennae, red and white – a stunning creature that is often sold in aquaria shops.

There are 6 species of green Rock Lobsters, genus Panulirus, in the north. All are common and widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific region. They are vegetarians so are not attracted to a baited pot.

The Hermit Crabs—the pagurids—are a fascinating group, and are common on outer areas of coral reefs. To be identified, they have to be removed from their shell, which is very difficult, so identification is mainly through colour. Preservatives fade the colour, so the specimens are first frozen so that colours can be recorded before the specimens are preserved. Hermit crabs have beautiful colours, some with blue legs and red stripes. The abdomen or ‘tail’ fits inside the shell and the final pair of appendages firmly anchors the body there. One of the largest Hermit Crabs, Dardanus megistos, over 30 cm long, is red with blue spots, the bright colours suggesting it may be toxic. This one has featured on many stamps of tropical countries.

Clibanarius species are pale coloured and occur on muddy inshore islands where one finds masses of them living in aggregations. When about to mate, they ritualistically "shell swap", moving in and out of shells. The land hermit crab, Coenobita variabilis is the one sold as a pet, and has been known to live in captivity for 15 years, fed on lettuce! They are nocturnal, living in the sand dunes at the back of the beach and coming out at night to feed. They only venture into the sea to deposit and disperse their eggs. The Porcellanidae are called half crabs or lobster crabs and are not true crabs. The abdomen is loose and not fully tucked under. They live on corals and under rocks, etc. The Sponge Crab is "furry" and on its back carries a living sponge! It is very primitive with tiny legs for holding the sponge on its back. This is a very good camouflage for its dark pink body.

The calappid crab holds its hands in front of its face, in a shame-faced way. Its heavy, strong claws are modified to eat gastropods. It crushes the shell and digs out the soft animal from inside, and it lives around coral bombies. The Spider Crabs, Decorator Crabs or Seaweed Crabs have complicated hooked hairs on their carapaces/shells. They clip off seaweed and place it on their backs and allow it to grow there for camouflage and for eating. A green Huenia proteus was collected by Kevin Kenneally on One Arm Point Reef, beautifully camouflaged with the green coralline seaweed Halimeda sp.

Mud Crabs, Scylla serrata, are well known and a popular edible delicacy. Very aggressive, they are found in the mangroves and two species are fished commercially. There may be a third species in Queensland. The Swimming Crabs—family Portunidae—are also good eating, especially the Blue Manna Portunus pelagicus. Very prevalent in tropical waters, they have bold markings and can be recognised by the back legs being modified into paddles. All are edible, and Aboriginal people sometimes use them as bait. The dark-fingered crabs of the family Xanthiidae live on reefs and have strong, short legs for hanging onto the corals. They are robust, usually pink or red with black claws, and one patterned for camouflage is called a Shawl Crab. Some are poisonous due to ingested dinoflagellates, so never eat a deep red crab with black claws. Eriphia has small red eyes, lives on large lumps of coral, and is also toxic.

The beautifully marked Harlequin Crab carries two sea anemones, one in each claw. Why? We don’t know. The minuscule Trapezids also live on corals. Allied to the Zanthids are a group of small hairy crabs, the Pilumnidae. On rocky headlands are found Rock Crabs, Corapsus alsolineatus, similar to our local common rock crab, Leptograpsus variegatus. Some are flat and thin to allow them to slip easily between the rocks. In the mangroves, living a semi-terrestrial existence in deep burrows, are sesarmid crabs which have gills modified into a lung so that they breathe oxygen through a wet or moist membrane. They have very heavy nippers and construct their burrows with a hood over the top.

The Soldier Crabs, Mictyris species, have blue bodies, and swarm like armies on the march. The four species in the Kimberley are fascinating to watch when the tide is out. The bright red Fiddler Crab, Uca flammea, is a well known inhabitant of the mangroves, with its huge red claw waving outside its burrow in the mangal mud. Endemic to WA, its eyes are set on long stalks to peer above the mud. The Sand Bubbler, Scopimera inflata, produces pseudo-faecal pellets by taking sand into its mouth and spitting out what it can’t eat. Bat Crabs—family Cryptochiridae—live inside the coral, as a living coral gall. They are very modified, live in permanent pairs, and don’t seem to even move out of the coral.

Di Jones and Garry Morgan have written a book called Crustacea of Australian Waters. Published by the WA Museum, it is well recommended for anyone interested in crustacea. Di also has a special interest in barnacles, of which there are 84 different species from the Kimberley, but only 15 of them named. Most barnacles are cryptic. They live on the gills of lobsters, even on corals and sponges etc. The Kimberley marine fauna has more affinities with the Indo-Pacific than anywhere else. Not many species are endemic to the Kimberley. Much more work remains to be done on this frontier for marine biology and we’re very lucky to have coral reefs in such a pristine condition. Mauritius and Hong Kong have none of their coral reefs left!

Di answered questions from the floor and, after thanking her for her extremely interesting talk and excellent slides, Kevin Kenneally introduced "Show and Tell" with a hunting boomerang made from Hakea arborescens by Davy of One Arm Point, and a lizard created by Paddy Roe of Broome out of a white gum Corymbia sp. Kevin also showed a series of Bush Books produced by CALM on aspects of the Kimberley, Birds, Plants, Geology and Landforms by Ian Tyler, the latest one.

Daphne Choules Edinger

Recommended reading list:

Jones, D.S. & Morgan G.J. (1994). A Field Guide to the Crustaceans of Australian Waters, Reed Books, Australia.

Dakin, W.J., Bennet, I. & Pope E. (1952). Australian Seashores, Angus & Robertson.

Healy, A. & Yaldwyn, J. (1970). Australian Crustaceans in Colour, A.H. & A.W. Reed.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT HERITAGE IN THE KIMBERLEY

On 4 June 1997, the Kimberley Society's guest speakers were Maurice Owen, Chairman of the Heritage Council of Western Australia and Cathie Clement, a public historian who also works as a heritage consultant.

Maurice spoke first, saying that the Heritage Act is relatively new, having been in existence only 5 years. The Heritage Council—the State’s expert body—was set up in 1990 and had its first meeting in 1991. Its aim is: a) to establish and maintain the Register of places which should be conserved for future generations; b) to ensure that any development of heritage places is done appropriately; and c) to promote awareness and knowledge of cultural heritage.

The Council's nine members include two architects, an engineer, and representatives of the National Trust, building owners, and Local Government; so there is a wide knowledge base. The key function of the Heritage Council is advisory and, under the Act, it is obliged to concern itself primarily with buildings and places, and not with such things as art. The National Trust is run by volunteers and focuses on educating people about heritage matters. It classifies heritage places and owns a range of buildings but has no legal power to prevent demolition. By comparison, if a building is on the State Register it has the protection of the Heritage Act. The Register is available for public perusal and is expected to have 1000 places by the time it is completed. The Heritage Act was recently reviewed and there have been several reviews of the separate Act that deals with Aboriginal sites.

Of the Kimberley places on the Register, most are in Broome. Maurice showed us slides and told us a little about the heritage significance of the following places:

1. Sun Pictures Gardens, the oldest in Australia, important for being an integral part of Broome’s social life.

2 Broome Pioneer Cemetery at Mangrove Point, where the oldest remains include those of Pemberton Walcott, an 1880s Inspector of Pearl Shell Fisheries.

3. Anglican Church of Enunciation, a timber-framed Federation Carpenter Gothic structure, centre for the North West diocese 1910–1964 and Pro-Cathedral of the North West.

4. Dampier Memorial in Bedford Park, commemorating the first English navigator to land on Australian soil (in 1688, well before Captain Cook visited the east coast).

5. Broome Courthouse, a corrugated iron and teak structure built by the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company in 1889 and used originally as a Cable Station.

6. Derby's Old Police Gaol (also known as the Native Shelter Shed, Grill or Lock-up) has suffered considerable deterioration but is still culturally important. It is thought to be the town's only surviving pre-World War I building.

As well as the diverse places on the Register, other places are recorded in Municipal Inventories created and maintained by Local Government Authorities. The Shires of Broome and Wyndham-East Kimberley have adopted their inventories; the Shires of Derby/West Kimberley and Halls Creek have completed theirs but have yet to adopt them; and we heard that 73 of the State's 144 local authorities have completed Inventories under the Heritage Act.

The Heritage Council works closely with other government authorities and it raises public awareness partly by assisting with promotion of the 140 Heritage Trails in WA. The Council can help heritage property owners with small grants for conservation works and, although the Federal Government has discontinued its support, the Lotteries Commission recently put one million dollars into heritage projects. Maurice spoke of a range of other incentives saying that, while the Council aims for a win-win situation, it has and can use enforcement powers. The old Railway Hotel in Perth was a case where, to avoid going to gaol, the owners who demolished it illegally subsequently rebuilt the facade at a cost of around one million dollars!

Cathie Clement's delivery began with an overhead image showing heritage places nominated on the Shire of Broome’s Municipal Inventory. Six are on the State Register, and another five are recommended for registration. Cathie spoke briefly about the Municipal Inventory process, saying that the breadth of the inventories differed markedly, e.g. the Derby/West Kimberley Municipal Inventory contains 51 pages whilst the Halls Creek document contains 11 pages. She then showed us slides of the following places listed in the Municipal Inventories:

1. Broome Bowling Club, originally a coastal radio station and later operated by OTC.

2. Wharfinger's House which is now the Derby Museum.

3. Derby Jetty Tramway remnants, and associated woolshed and goods shed, now disused.

4. Fossil Downs Station outside Fitzroy Crossing, a two storey homestead (built before and after World War II) with fine examples of interior design dating from the 1940s.

5. Ruins at Lillmaloora, built from local stone in the 1880s, a sheep station homestead that

had been abandoned and was being used by the police when Jandamarra (Pigeon) shot and killed Constable Richardson there in November 1894.

6. Ruins of the old homestead at Leopold Downs station, built from an unusual pink stone.

7. The low level river crossing on the Fitzroy, constructed in the 1930s and widened in the 1950s, provided the main river crossing in this locality until a bridge was built in 1974.

8. Fitzroy Crossing Backpackers Hostel, formerly the Post Office, built in the 1950s and significant as part of a 100-year sequence of local post and telegraph office services.

9. Sergeant’s Quarters (built 1950–52) in the Old Fitzroy Crossing Police Station Precinct, significant as part of a 100-year sequence of police presence in the area.

10. Liveringa Homestead Group, built in 1908 from local stone, with walls 18" thick and ventilation through the ceiling, includes out-buildings related to sheep rather than cattle.

11. Bungarun, the Derby Leprosarium, built in 1936 to house and treat people with Hansen’s Disease, provided an essential service but one that many townspeople didn't want nearby.

12. Halls Creek Post Office ruins, built from mud bricks in 1890 but left with no roof to stop deterioration through weathering after the iron was removed and sold.

13. Original Ord River station homestead out of Halls Creek, has been roofed for protection.

14. Grave of David Suttie, who died in 1912 and was the Head Stockman in Mrs Anneas Gunn's book We of the Never Never. The grave is near Wyndham but hard to find.

Other places already on the State Register, or recommended for listing, are:

a) Shire of Halls Creek – Wolfe Creek Meteorite Crater, Lake Gregory and environs, and the Bungle Bungle Range region (Purnululu);

b) Shire of Wyndham-East Kimberley – Chinese shops, Gully Cemetery, Gully Road Precinct, Honest John's shop, Gaol (former Hospital), old Courthouse, old Post Office, old Port Hall, Post Master's Residence (former), Truscott Base and Wyndham Port Hardware store.

c) Shire of Derby/West Kimberley – Cave School and homestead on Go Go station, and old homestead on Oscar Range station.

d) Shire of Broome – Chinatown Conservation Area, Quarantine Station Houses, Sacred Heart Church at Beagle Bay, Cape Leveque Lighthouse and Lombadina Mission.

Cathie Clement noted that conservation plans have been prepared for various places, e.g. the Broome Courthouse, and that at others, e.g. Silent Grove, which is now a CALM Nature Reserve, evidence of human habitation has been removed. Cathy Day, a Kimberley Society member who worked on the Wyndham-East Kimberley Municipal Inventory, contributed some comments about other historic sites such as Anthon’s Landing in Cambridge Gulf, Carlton Hill station, which is much visited by architects and historians, and Wyndham Port Hardware Store—the oldest building in Wyndham—which was run by Black Pat Durack. Cathy Day noted that even comparatively modern buildings and constructions in Kununurra are listed, e.g. the Diversion Dam and the Crushing Plant used to build it in the late 1960s. Who decides what goes on the list? Who arbitrates it? The local Council does by democratic means.

Cathie concluded her talk with a series of 1886 photographs showing eight vessels anchored in Cambridge Gulf and 22 buildings and sites identified by name. She and Maurice then answered questions and the 45 people present showed their appreciation in the usual manner. The evening concluded with the President introducing "Bluey" Quilty who spoke briefly on Old Halls Creek, its history and present condition, with slides of structures of interest.

Daphne Choules Edinger

• Information about heritage places in the Kimberley can be accessed by contacting Helen Ansell, a Society member, in the Heritage Council's library on telephone (08) 9221 4177.

On 2 July 1997, Greg Keighery of the Department of Conservation and Land Management presented an illustrated talk on the botany of the Ningbing Range in the East Kimberley. The range rises abruptly from a black soil plain on Carlton Hill Station, north of Kununurra and north-east of Wyndham, and is actually an archipelago of limestone hills that become islands when isolated either by floodwater during the wet or by fire during the late dry season. It is part of the 340 million-year-old Devonian Reef system which ringed the Kimberley landmass; other remnants are the Napier and Oscar ranges. The reef was built by stromatolites and stromatoporoids with few corals, unlike modern reefs which are built by corals cemented together by coralline algae. The Ningbings are the best developed tropical limestone karst formations in Australia except for Chillagoe (Qld). They are very rugged, with pinnacles and towers separated by clefts up to 40 metres deep; the surface is pitted and rilled by rainwater erosion and undermined by caves, which makes it a difficult and dangerous area to explore.

The Ningbings are notable for their fauna of land snails, described by the late Alan Solem of the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. On two brief visits, totalling six days, his party collected over 3000 snails of the family Camaenidae, comprising 3 new genera and 18 new species, all believed to be confined to the range. The genera are separated in a sequence from north to south but there is some overlap of species, which are reproductively isolated. In contrast to the range, the black soil plains support a single Camaenid species. None are found on sandstone hills to the east. Rainbow Pittas have a similar distribution and prey on the snails. Earthworms too are believed to be endemic but most are undescribed.

The Ningbing Range has been recommended for inclusion in the Register of the National Estate because of its karst features and highly endemic fauna. Greg illustrated his talk with slides of the karst structures and habitats. Having set the scene, he then discussed the plants of the area. The plains are covered by Savannah woodland which in a few places extends over the top of the lower hills, the grass Heteropogon contortus dominates the plain while spinifex (Triodia spp) is found on the sandstone hills. Near the Ningbings, limestone extends below the surface for some distance and here the eucalypts are replaced by boab trees. In general eucalypts and Proteaceae do not grow on calcareous soils; a single tropical eucalypt is found on limestone. Kapok bush, which has a toxic latex, invades grazed areas near the range. Clefts and most gullies in the range, protected from fire and grazing, support vine forest, dominated by about five species of figs with 30–40 other species including the deciduous Pouteria sericea (a true rainforest tree), lianes, Brachychiton and the helicopter tree Gyrocarpus americanus. Most of the vine forest trees have fleshy fruits, the seeds of which are dispersed by Torres Strait pigeons.

During the wet season many understorey plants form a herb layer of 30–40 species which disappear in the dry season. The tops of the hills and towers are protected from fire but provide a very harsh environment; rock figs and some deciduous vine forest trees cling to the rock crevices. On the tops, where there is hardly any soil, a few succulent vines and the blue flowered Trichodesma manage to hang on. Overall more than 200 species of flowering plants have been recorded from the Ningbings although the rainforest flora is less diverse than that of the wetter West Kimberley. Greg completed the evening by answering many questions from the audience but unfortunately has not been available since to check this summary.

Loisette Marsh

THE ROAD TO ARGYLE: A HISTORY OF DIAMOND EXPLORATION IN WA

At the meeting of 6 August 1997, Ewen Tyler , the Director of Ashton Mining Ltd., presented a comprehensive overview of the history of diamond exploration in WA, a history in which he played a prominent role. Ewen studied at UWA, under Rex Prider, graduating in 1949. He then spent 10 years in Africa before working for another ten in London, where he arranged money for diamond exploration, and also platinum, but that was much harder to accomplish.

Rex Prider had studied lucite lamprolites similar to the kimberlites of South Africa. This had inspired Ewen to continue in a similar vein, hence his time in South Africa, and since 1973, to explore in WA, ending with the success story at Argyle.

Argyle is the largest producer of diamonds in the world, producing 35–40% of the world's natural diamonds, one half being industrial and the other half of gem quality. Gems are the most important and therefore the main business.

After this short introduction, Ewen interspersed his talk with many interesting slides, the first being of the High Priest of Exodus with a large diamond in his dress breastplate. The body-decorating industry has been around a long time. There was a 1486 lithograph of an Indian working to recover alluvial diamonds. Concerning the history of diamond mining, the first report comes from India in 450 BC, but the first kimberlite wasn't found until 1930, again in India. The first mineable kimberlite was found in 1871, five years after the discovery of the first diamond in Africa.

What is a diamond pipe? It is a kimberlite from an old volcano containing special minerals and has steep circular vents produced from great depths and at high speeds; but not all kimberlites contain diamonds.

Ewen started searching in 1969 but didn't find anything until 10 years later in 1979. It doesn't happen quickly or easily. First there was South Africa, then in the 1950s, pipes were discovered in Siberia and now Australia. Canada may be next.

How do we search for diamonds? The volcano erupts, material is washed away and the diamonds are found at great depths. There are indicator minerals of microscopic size, such as phlogopite, garnet, pyroxene, ilmenite (magnesian) and spinel. There needs to be a lot of painstaking laboratory work to find these. In South Africa, they dollied into a pan at a trapsite of indicator minerals; these were then inspected by geologists. In Australia, the first diamond was discovered at Bathurst, NSW in 1851, but no kimberlite. Diamonds also turned up at Nullagine in 1895. Ewen doesn't believe we've found all the diamonds in Australia yet.

In the 1970s, they used helicopters to send geologists out exploring. The site selection is important, also the sample collections. Women are good diamond explorers, e.g. Maureen Muggeridge found the first evidence of diamonds on 25 August 1973 (Ewen's birthday) at Pteropus Creek. This is 200 kilometres north of Wyndham and not easily accessible. Here they found three indicators and Di, the first diamond. They got back in via Berkeley River. They rolled drums of fuel off barges and used prawn boats to bring in gear. The immense tidal flows were a nuisance for incoming vessels. One boat sank. The vegetation was very thick and barramundi abounded at the point of salination of the river. Ewen thinks the Kimberley was much more thickly wooded in geological time than now. They moved to Drysdale River, to Tamarindos, east of Kalumburu. They found diamonds and indicator minerals in the King George River.

Five companies were in the original syndicate and CRA was invited to join. After the first quarter carat (1 carat = 1/5 gram) diamond was found, CRA decided to join. Ewen went to London with eight diamonds in his pocket and was nearly robbed.

The first indicator mineral was found on the Charnley River and 1200 samples were taken in the first programme. In June 1974, indicator minerals were found in the East Kimberley at Wilson River but it was not until October 1979 that the ones at Argyle were found. There are diamonds at Ellendale in the West Kimberley too, with different indicator minerals from those present at Argyle. At Ellendale, garnet, chromite and chrome dropside are present. In the exacting work of using a microscope to find diamonds and indicator minerals in the samples, women tend to have better discerning skills than men.

The first kimberlite found was at Skerring in 1976, but alas, no diamonds. The second real discovery came in South Kimberley at Big Spring.

In 1977, the syndicate applied for tenements to cover the West Kimberley deposits. Vast quantities of rock have to be processed to find diamonds and, by the 1990s, insufficient carats of diamonds per tonne of rock were being recovering to operate in the Ellendale field, which was very disappointing. But the process water dam was full of fish and birds, even through man-made.

The kimberlite pipe at Argyle is a 1.2 billion year old volcano and is one of the oldest in the world. Ellendale at 20 million years is the youngest in the world. The first proposal to search for diamonds was made in October 1969 and the Argyle kimberlite body was found in October 1979. Finding the first diamond was incredibly exciting. Argyle has 7 carats/tonne, worth only US$6.50 per carat when it was opened; a low value, but there are plenty of them. The valuation and assessment of stones is important. Grade is usually stated in carats per 100 tonnes not carats per tonne. There are 7000 categories of rough diamonds, with an enormous spread of value. They are sorted into size and colour categories. Production is 40 million carats per year, but over 50% of this production is low value. Security has to be very strict and body searches are carried out.

The establishment of the mine began with preparation of the pit at Razor Ridge. The $425 million mine was built in just under two years and the company re-contours the ground and re-vegetates after mining. An accommodation area had to be built to accompany and service the mine and a water pipeline was taken underground from Lake Argyle. Ten percent of the workers are Aboriginal and 20% are female. The women perform many tasks, including those of fitters, and the female touch is more sensitive for operating heavy equipment. Argyle is now a $400 million a year enterprise which has established its own cutting and polishing industry. Pink diamonds are collectors items; a 1 carat stone may be worth US$1 million but there is also an outlandish royalty—22% goes to the WA Government.

Here Ewen finished his most interesting delivery and Kevin Kenneally thanked him for such a well-prepared and executed talk.

Daphne Choules Edinger

THE PEARLING INDUSTRY IN THE KIMBERLEY

At the meeting of 3 September 1997, Ms Dee Taylor from Linneys Jewellers stood in for Greg Linney who had been invited overseas at short notice. Dee is the Manager of Linneys shop in Subiaco and she opened her talk with a short video called "Jewels of the Sea", which illustrated the history and management of the farming of cultured pearls.

The largest and most lustrous pearls in the world come from Broome and are cultivated or cultured in the Giant Silver-lipped pearl oyster called Pictada maxima. Bill Read, a marine biologist, coined the name "Broome Pearls". Pearls are the oldest gems known to mankind and the industry in Broome originated from the collection of pearl shell for "Mother of Pearl" buttons etc. The actual collection of pearls was a sideline and only began in earnest in the 1950s when plastics took over for use in buttons.

There was also a big change in diving methods at this time. The huge lead boots and heavy helmets were slow, labour-intensive and dangerous. The divers still carry a bag around their necks in which to store the shells as they collect them. Originally Japanese and Malays, they are now are mostly Aboriginal and other Australian people. The season is February to May.

To make a cultured pearl, you must start with the right oyster shell and water where the temperature is about 20º C. The bags are filled and the shell are measured, cleaned of debris and kept alive in mesh baskets which are lowered back into the ocean bed till they are ready for seeding. During seeding, a wooden wedge is inserted to keep the two shells apart for the operation. The mantle makes the nacre which coats the pearl. In a natural situation, a pearl results when a piece of sand or grit accidentally enters the shell and the nacre is deposited to isolate it and lessen the irritation to the animal.

To make a cultured pearl, a tissue graft and a nucleus from a freshwater clam shell are inserted into the animal which is then returned to the sea to recuperate. Eventually they are all strung upon long lines in calm, warm seas such as those at the 18 pearl farms on the Kimberley coast and two off Darwin. It takes 8000 oyster-days to produce a pearl. Fouling organisms which compete for food must be cleaned off, mostly by hand, every two weeks for the next two years while the pearls form in the shells. It can be dangerous work, as there are sharks and crocodiles in these peaceful-looking waters. Often the crew and workers live on floating two-storey pontoons to be close to their work.

Finally comes the harvest after the shells are cleaned for the final time and prised open to extract the world’s finest pearls. It is illegal to kill an oyster to look for a pearl today and, if the shell is in good condition, another seed will be inserted. The pearls are then washed, weighed and packaged. Broome produces 1300 kg of pearls annually. The Japanese produce 100 tons but only leave the seeds in for six months. Their pearls are smaller and they have badly polluted waters which can wipe out their shells. The Cook Islands use the Black-lipped oyster. Oysters can change sex during their lifetime and they usually live for about eight years.

Cyclones are a problem and can destroy the whole farm. The oyster meat is sold to Japan and fetches $100 per kg. Originally, Japanese experts did all the seeding but now the Australians are being trained and taking over. A large apricot pearl is worth $8000–$9000; a drop shape is worth $5000. A Keshi pearl is a small, baroque pearl, uneven and almost natural. Our largest pearls range from 10 to 20, even 25 millimetres. On a good pearl, the nacre is built up as thick as a fingernail. A real pearl is slippery but a fake or manufactured pearl will grate on the teeth. Some people believe pearls are unlucky but this is not so; they are tears of joy at owning such a beautiful gem. They also get better as they age.

Dee, who has been with Linneys for six years, answered many questions as she passed around a large pearl shell and three beautiful samples of pearls, one large apricot, one large drop and one black pearl. Her own ring, a Keshi surrounded by many small diamonds, was most attractive. We were lucky to be able to handle such priceless gems. Kevin Kenneally thanked Dee for her interesting illustrated talk and the audience gave a round of applause.

Daphne Choules Edinger

TURTLES AND DUGONGS

Dr Bob Prince, a Senior Research Scientist with CALM, spoke to Kimberley Society at the meeting of 1 October 1997. He has done extensive research on kangaroos, dugongs and turtles, especially in the Kimberley and on how they relate to the north of Australia, and he showed slides of the animals and a video film of dugongs and the traditional methods the Aboriginal people use in hunting them. The film was shot at One Arm Point and Shark Bay in 1979 by the Queensland Marine Parks Authority.

The dugong is one of four surviving species of sirenians or sea cows, the animals most like the mermaids of European legend. Zoologically, dugongs are closely related to elephants and, in common with their close relatives the manatees, they belong to a group of essentially terrestrial animals that returned early on in evolution to an aquatic way of life. There are three manatees, one from the West Indies, one African and an Amazonian. Our dugong stocks are good compared with the rest of the world where numbers are in a sorry state. They are strictly marine dwellers, feeding mainly on seagrasses, and are found from Shark Bay in the west, around the north coast and down to Moreton Bay in the east. The young are dependent on their mothers for two years. They are 1.2 metres long at birth, weighing 20–35 kg. They reach sexual maturity in the late teens and pregnancy lasts 13 months. A pregnant female of 2.6 metres weighed 345 kg, so they are a very large marine mammal. Their life span is about 70 years, and their age can be determined by the incisor teeth of the male. In the female these are non-functional and rarely erupt. A longitudinal section of the tusk, as shown in a slide, shows dense dentine alternating with less dense dentine, giving growth waves which can be counted like the growth rings in a tree trunk. The oldest one reported from Roebuck Bay was aged 72 years.

Twenty to thirty years ago, people thought dugongs were becoming extinct, but 80–100,000 are estimated to live in coastal regions of Western Australia; about 2000 of them between Ningaloo and Exmouth Gulf. They inhabit warm subtropical seas, move slowly and communicate by squeaks. They provide an important source of food for Aboriginal people, especially those residing near the coast. Non-Aboriginal Australians are not permitted to eat them. A high level of local exploitation may be unsustainable and careful management is needed. Nor is the impact of humans confined to direct predation. Commercial fisheries can be exploiting the same habitat and dugongs can get tangled in fishing gear, collide with boats, suffer from oil spills and other marine pollution and fall prey to sharks and killer whales.

There are two families. The sole representative of the first family, the Dermochelyidae, the leatherback turtle, has no hard bony shell and is known in WA as a non-breeding migrant only. They roam the open oceans and feed on jellyfish and colonial tunicates. They can submerge for ¾ hour and can dive to depths of 1 kilometre below the pelagic zone, withstanding great compression. They breed in the Indonesian Archipelago. The second family, the Cheloniidae, have the body enclosed within a hard bony shell or carapace covered with horny plates. Five of the world’s six species in this family are found in Western Australian waters. They are the green, hawksbill, loggerhead, flatback and the rare and poorly known olive ridley turtle. The green turtle is the most abundant and is a herbivore that eats seagrasses and algae. The flatback turtle is usually found in tropical Western Australian waters from Exmouth Gulf area northwards, but is not particularly abundant. The hawksbill turtle is the one producing the typical tortoise-shell from its keratinous scales, which thicken up and may be heat laminated to produce jewellery. They are relatively scarce in WA waters, found mainly at Dampier Archipelago, and they feed on sponges. The loggerhead turtle has a huge head and is a bottom-feeding carnivore, eating crabs, etc. They are also relatively scarce in WA waters, concentrated mostly at Dirk Hartog Island, and seem to be more tolerant of cooler waters.

Adult marine turtles are relatively large animals, with fore limbs modified to form paddle-like flippers and hind limbs, although modified, retaining the functional ability needed by females for nesting on land. All species lay parchment-shelled eggs which are covered and then abandoned for incubation after laying. All turtles are tied to terrestrial areas—beaches—for breeding. The biggest breeding site for green turtles is the Lacepede Islands where 1500 were counted on the beach in one night. At Northwest Cape, 2000–3000 animals were seen in one season.

Dr Prince had many interesting handouts to distribute and, after he answered many questions from the 40 people present, the President thanked him for his absorbing talk.

Daphne Choules Edinger

ABORIGINAL FISH TRAPS IN THE KIMBERLEY

The speaker for the meeting of 5 November 1997 was Dr Moya Smith, Acting Head of the Anthropology Department of the WA Museum. Moya calls herself an ethno-archaeologist and is concerned primarily with human behaviour, which gives life to her work. She began her study in the Kimberley in 1980, working at the Lombadina Community, counting the numbers of shells in middens on the coast. The women there were great and rescued her many times from her endless counting. Moya has also studied the ethno-botany of the Bardi people and wrote An Annotated List of Plants & Their Use by the Bardi Aborigines of Dampierland, published by the Museum. These people are called the Saltwater People and their life, including "Women and Fishing", is Moya's present study. Fish traps are her obsession. In commenting on her long term involvement with them, she said with a smile that she decided at one time they were only telling her small snippets so that she would keep coming back.

The earliest evidence of a coastal economy was obtained from two caves at Wigingarri (160 km NE of One Arm Point) and Koolan Island where the researchers found 28,000 shell artefacts, and marine food evidence dated at 8,000 years ago. The artefacts from Koolan Island included mud clam tools, baler shell dishes and pelican egg shells; turtle, dugong and fish bones were evidence of food use. High Cliffy Island in Montgomery Reef area was also a use site. Here they obtained shell scatters from 3500 years ago to the present, being good evidence of marine activity. Marine resources are, naturally, important to all coastal people, and these Aborigines relied on an extensive knowledge of the tides and seasons to enable them to make the best use of their environment for food. From October to November, for example, the people focused on turtles and their eggs and ate shark and whales, which they sang ashore and stranded. Dugong was, and still is, a major resource for the Bardi and other islanders. Stingrays, crocodiles, crabs, sea birds, shell fish and oysters also form part of their diet, and all have to be cut up according to rigid rules. The people use digging sticks to obtain bivalves such as pepis, but fish are still the most important part of their diet after plants.

They used fish traps and fish poisons in their capture. The plants used as fish poisons were three species of the pea Tephrosia, T. crocea, T. aff. flammea and T. aff. rosea. The nodules on the roots contain pyrofavones which are released when the roots are ground on a stone, mixed with wet sand and shoved under a stone or under sand in an enclosed pool. This poison is used between August and December. The bark of other plants such as Planchonia careya (cocky apple) and Aegiceras corniculatum are also used in a similar way. Soft corals and black sea cucumbers, Holothuria atra, containing the poison holothurin, are also used as a fish poison. The Worora lit fires to attract fish into their traps at night.

The traps offered a very popular means of capturing fish and comprised five different types:

1. A small stone wall covered with vegetation – these had to be watched continually so the fish did not escape.

2. A trap situated at the top of the tidal range – these allowed the people to swim out and drive in small fish such as garfish and longtoms

3. Pens with two arms or horns.

4. The natural rock pool built up as a trap.

5. Most common, 1 to 1.5 metre high rock walls built across a tidal creek – the fish are picked out by hand so there is no blood to attract sharks.

Moya has found 39 locations of these traps so far, either single or in clusters. Unfortunately, they can’t be dated. The Aboriginal people still rebuild them, but mostly for tourists. Silting was a problem so they moved them around a bit. Cape Jaubert has many, as shown in an aerial photo, but not used any more. One Arm Point has many on the main reef area. Midlagon has one composed of a large curved wall, last used in 1972 and seen by many of our members. Many of them were rebuilt by the women. Moya herself tried building up a trap and caught 12 small fish! Temporary traps or weirs were once built up with mangrove wood but are now made using star pickets with a net strung across.

Spears 1½ metres long were the most common means of fishing and still are, made of Acacia. The modern ones have a steel tip fixed to a wooden shaft. Women carry them, also the digging sticks used for shellfish. Kylies or fishing boomerangs are not used much any more. These were made of tough mangrove wood. People later made metal kylies, but, because they sink, wood is better. They used paperbark trays to hold the food, also baler shells and torches or twists of paperbark for night fishing. Lines are now popular, with suicide hooks and lead sinkers the modern method.

Moya interspersed her talk with old slides which included the Bardi people riding turtles (taken in 1917); Robin Hunter, a learned old man in 1980; spearing fish; and a single fan raft made of seven pieces of mangrove wood, Camptostemon schultzii, light like balsa lashed together and with nails made from the very hard wood of Acacia monticola. These rafts were used from as far south as the Burrup Peninsula north to the Prince Regent River. They rode tides up to 12 metres on these, making sure they didn't go against them, and people were still making them in the 1970s. Dugout canoes can fill and sink, but not these light rafts which were used extensively for fishing. During question time, Moya explained that crabs were caught with the foot, or a tomahawk, or a specially fashioned wire. At the conclusion, Kevin thanked Moya for her well-presented, interesting talk and we responded in the usual manner with a round of applause.

Daphne Choules Edinger

FRUITS OF THE FOREST: KIMBERLEY RAINFOREST PLANTS, FRUITS AND BIRDS

At the meeting of 3 December 1997 our first speaker was the Society's President, Kevin Kenneally, world authority on Kimberley flora and Scientific Coordinator of CALM’s Landscope Expeditions. Kevin discussed the plants and fruits of the rainforest before Ron Johnstone, Assistant Curator of Ornithology at the WA Museum, spoke on the birds.

Firstly, Kevin showed two books relevant to the topic, Kimberley Rainforests, Australia, edited by McKenzie, Johnstone & Kendrick (published by Surrey Beatty & Sons), and Fruits of the Rainforest; a guide to fruits in Australian Tropical Rainforests, illustrated beautifully by William T. Cooper, with text by Wendy Cooper (published by RD Press).

Rainforests in WA have been known only from the 1960s onwards. Ours are not evergreen, as in tropical South America, but ‘rain green’. They depend on the wet season for their rainfall. The south-east monsoons bring the heavy rain with onshore squalls and thunderstorms. There may also be additional rain from cyclones, often with associated damage. Unlike the dry fruits of the typical Australian plants of the savanna, the rainforest plants have fleshy, brightly coloured fruits that attract birds and arboreal animals such as bats.

Kevin showed us many slides illustrating the typical rainforest patches, sometimes called vine thickets because they are dominated by vines and creepers in the green closed canopy. We were also shown vine thickets growing behind the coastal sand dunes near Broome, the mangroves and the riparian forests lining river banks all of which have closed canopies. All rainforests are very susceptible to fire, especially in the dry season, when the majority of trees are deciduous. Feral cattle use them for shelter which results in damage.

Ferns are common in the shaded, sheltered forests of high humidity, for example, the climbing maiden hair fern, Lygodium microphyllum. Kevin showed slides of representative plants with colourful fleshy fruits, such as: Polyalthia australis in the Annonaceae, related to the Custard Apple. The Native Nutmeg, Myristica insipida, related to the true nutmeg, the spicy M. fragrans, whose aril is mace. Syzygium eucalyptoides of the Myrtaceae, has a large white flower with showy stamens, related to the cultivated lilypilly, and S. angophoroides with fleshy black fruits. These are sweet to eat but grow on trees up to 30 metres tall. Micromelum minutum of the Rutaceae (citrus family) has clumps of small red fruits. Aglaia elaeagnoidea is a common rain forest species with large red fruits, in the Meliaceae. Cyathostemma is a vine in the Annonaceae. Favoured by Aborigines for its dark purple fruit is mangarr (Pouteria sericea), a widespread tree species. A relative of the passion fruit is Adenia heterophylla, a vine bearing bright red fruits. Terminalia petiolaris is a Nutwood producing a fruit very high in Vitamin C. Luffa graveolens belongs to the melon family and some species are favoured by bats. One of the ebonies is Diospyros bundeyana¸ a plant related to the persimmon. The euphorbia or spurge family includes Flueggea virosa with white succulent fruits, and Phyllanthus with red fruits turning black on ripening. Figs are common and there are many different ones which feed many animals. Celtis in the Ulmaceae has sweet fruits.

Ron Johnstone has made many trips to the nearby islands of Indonesia, finding links between the avifauna there and in the Kimberley. He also studies reptiles and frogs in the two areas. Ron showed us a map of Indonesia, the islands of the Lesser Sundas and Maluku Islands where a grant has enabled a group of zoologists to visit islands from Bali to West Irian. During the late Pleistocene, the closest of these islands, Timor, was only about 75 kilometres from the Australian coast. Also in this string of islands is Sabu, Aru, Sumba, Banda, Flores and Roti which were the last to separate from Australia. They share our plants – some eucalypts, casuarinas and Banksia dentata.

There have been various zoogeographic lines demarked such as the Wallace Line, Webers Line and Lydekkers Line and, more recently, the Kitchener Line, about 2,000 kilometres to the east near Tanimbar, which more correctly demarks the change between the Oriental and Australian faunas. The first of these three lines is shown on a map presented by Dr D. Kitchener and others in 'Wild Mammals of Lombok Island' (published in 1990 in the Records of the WA Museum, Supplement No.33).

There has been faunal exchange between elements of the Australian and Oriental fauna since at least the late Tertiary. The nature of this faunal exchange is poorly known for most species, although several zoogeographic lines (eg Wallace 1910) attempted to demark elements of the vertebrate fauna that are Australian to the east and Oriental to the west. The interchange of fauna depends largely on several key historical events involving the formation of the current Indonesian archipelago and Australia/New Guinea, which provided a migration pathway for Oriental and Australian fauna.

Between 1920 and 1950 little research occurred in the Lesser Sunda and Maluku Regions. However a series of recent expeditions involving the WA Museum and the Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense have visited Nusa Tenggara and the Moluccas to study the interzone.

Many of these islands have volcanoes and rainforest patches. On Flores there are active craters, but much of this island was cleared to cultivate rice, as were many of the others. There is also cloud forest on Flores where the species are very different from ours, though Ficus, Randia, Celtis and Melia azederach are all there. The island is difficult to work as there are steep slopes, many palms with heavy fruit, and many bamboos including prickly ones and epiphytes galore. There is a high crater montane lake and large wet fern gullies. Many of south-east Asia's animals and large fruit-eating birds, e.g. the Sumba thornbill and some large fruit pigeons, don’t get through to Australia. They have many mammals such as macaques, palm squirrels, and civets, and many more bats than the Kimberley; they even have bat-eating bats! All these animals mentioned were illustrated by slides.

On Aru there are sago swamps with malaria-carrying mosquitoes and crocodiles in the mud, so it’s very like a large mangrove swamp in northern Australia. There are large orb spiders in the sago swamps. The famous Komodo Dragon occurs on the island of Komodo. It is the largest lizard in the world, a formidable creature indeed. Draco is a flying dragon and Gecko gecko screams out on islands ranging from Bali to Timor. Why haven’t they colonised northern Australia, since at one time only 75 kilometres separated them? One gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus, which is very common on the Lesser Sundas, has colonised Kununurra, and other species have moved across the Torres Strait.

The Cuscus lives in the forest canopy and feeds on fruits, also the Bandicoot on Kay Island. The flying possums are getting through to here. The Flying Fox, a fruit bat from the West Papuan group feeds on figs. The Reticulated Python grows to 26 feet and is large and powerful to feed on pigs, deer, bats and swifts. Up to 60,000 of them have been shipped out for food, bags and shoes through to Timor. The Death Adder, a common snake on many eastern Indonesian islands, also lives in the rainforest and is found in similar habitats in Australia. A new species of death adder has been found in east Indonesia. So far scientists from the WA Museum and Bogor Museum have discovered 40 new species of mammals, 25–30 new species of frogs including new species of Rana and Litoria.

Ron was looking at the inter-island variation between many species and subspecies, including Torres Strait Pigeons and had brought with him some study skins—stuffed specimens mounted on sticks for ease of handling. The birds in the rain forest are all fruit eaters and the very extensive patches of vine thicket yield plenty of fruit. The largest is the Imperial Pigeon of Western Papua. It feeds on large nutmegs, and one was found to have 37 fruits in its gut! The Spice Imperial Pigeon also feeds on nutmegs. The Nutmeg Pigeons from Banda Island, called the "Nutmeg Island", are powerful fliers but don’t move out of the rainforest. Ron had a black-naped fruit dove, a Nicobar Pigeon caught from oil rigs in the Timor Sea, which is a new record and a range extension. The Orange-legged Scrub Fowl is a Kimberley megapode which makes mounds to incubate its eggs a little like our Mallee Fowl. The Bee eaters migrate to south-east Asia from here as do many others including Tree Martins. Seabirds also migrate between Australia and Indonesia but one common rainforest species, the Kimberley Greater Bower Bird, doesn’t get through to Indonesia.

Many birds have evolved in Australia and have poured out to colonise islands further north, including some of the honeyeaters. A number of Asian species have colonised Australia via New Guinea and the Torres Strait Islands, moving down to invade the south-eastern states of Australia. So from Bali to the Tanimbar Group there is blending of Australian and Asian faunas. The strong, warm Leeuwin Current has enabled many seabirds to extend their ranges southwards down the Western Australian coast.

Ron illustrated his interesting talk with excellent slides of the various birds mentioned and of different localities of rainforest, as well as many study skins of local and Indonesian birds for comparison. The 64 members present thanked Ron and Kevin in the usual manner for their fascinating insight into birds and fruits of the rainforest.

Daphne Choules Edinger